Reform Movements in the 19th and 20th Centuries

What Does Reform Mean in Islam?

In Islamic terms, reform is not about changing the religion itself (since Islam is believed to be complete and perfect) but about renewing our commitment to its authentic teachings. The Arabic word for reform, islah (إصلاح), literally means "to improve, restore, or put things right." It appears in the Quran to describe actions that correct or reconcile situations. For example, Prophet Shu'ayb said to his people:

"I only desire reform (islah) as much as I am able. My success is only by Allah." (Quran 11:88)

Another related term is tajdid (تجديد), meaning renewal. The Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) taught that Islam would periodically be renewed. He said:

"Allah will raise for this community at the end of every hundred years someone who will renew its religion for it." (Sunan Abu Dawud 4291)

Such a person is often called a mujaddid (renewer). This hadith reassured Muslims that Allah would send guides to revive the faith whenever it grew weak. Importantly, reform in Islam means returning to the pure teachings of the Quran and Prophet (ﷺ), removing corruptions or innovations, and reapplying Islam's principles to current challenges, not altering the core beliefs or pillars of the religion.

Islamic reform is essentially a revival (ihya) of the original message's spirit. The religion itself does not need changing, since Allah says:

"Today I have perfected your religion for you, and completed My favor upon you, and have approved Islam as the way of life for you." (Quran 5:3)

Instead, reformers focus on changing the Muslims themselves for the better (in belief, practice, and society) to realign with Islam's perfection. This often involves education, purifying religious practices, moral upliftment, and sometimes social or political activism, all guided by authentic Islamic principles.

Quranic Guidance for Renewal and Reform

The Quran, believed by Muslims to be the literal word of Allah, provides timeless guidance that inspired reform movements. Many verses emphasize the need for communities to improve themselves, stay true to divine guidance, and avoid stagnation or decline. Here are some of the key Quranic teachings related to reform and renewal:

"Indeed, Allah will not change the condition of a people until they change what is in themselves." (Quran 13:11)

(This verse teaches that positive change in our fate begins with inner moral and spiritual reform.)

"That is because Allah would not change a favor which He had bestowed upon a people until they change what is within themselves." (Quran 8:53)

(Blessings last only if people remain righteous; if we become corrupt, Allah may withdraw His favor until we reform.)

"Let there be a group among you who call to goodness, enjoin what is right, and forbid what is wrong - those are the successful." (Quran 3:104).

(This urges the Muslim community to actively promote virtue and correct wrongs - essentially a Quranic call for societal reform.)

"You [Muslims] are the best nation produced for mankind: you enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong and believe in Allah." (Quran 3:110)

(The Quran defines the Muslim ummah's mission as leading by example, reforming society by spreading good and preventing evil.)

"Hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided." (Quran 3:103)

(True reform also means uniting upon Allah's guidance (the "rope of Allah" often interpreted as the Quran) rather than fracturing into sects.)

"And if you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you believe in Allah and the Last Day." (Quran 4:59)

(All reform efforts must ultimately be checked against the Quran and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ). Returning to these primary sources is the way to resolve disputes and correct the course.)

"O believers! Respond to Allah and the Messenger when he calls you to that which gives you life." (Quran 8:24)

(This beautiful verse describes the Quranic message as giving life to the hearts and communities. Reformers used it to remind people that true vitality and progress come from adhering to faith.)

"Allah has promised those among you who believe and do righteous deeds that He will surely grant them authority on earth... and He will surely establish for them their religion which He has chosen for them." (Quran 24:55)

(Here is a promise that if Muslims hold firmly to faith and righteousness, Allah will empower them and renew their strength. Many saw this as motivation that revival of religious practice would lead to success in the world.)

"Do not weaken or grieve: you will be superior if you are (true) believers." (Quran 3:139)

(Even in times of decline, Muslims are reminded that the remedy is to strengthen their faith. Worldly honor is tied to true belief.)

All these verses (and many others) reassured 19th and 20th-century Muslims that the key to renewal was in their own hands, through Allah's guidance. They had to purify their beliefs, strengthen their unity, actively promote good, and return to the Quran and prophetic example. The Quran provided both spiritual motivation and a blueprint for action: change starts from within, and Allah helps those who help themselves.

Prophetic Teachings on Renewal and Innovation

The Hadith, sayings of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), are the second fundamental source of guidance in Islam. Many authentic hadith directly address issues of religious renewal and warn against corrupting the religion with unfounded innovations. These hadith became rallying calls for reformers:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "He who innovates something in this matter of ours (Islam) that is not from it will have it rejected." (Reported by Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim)

This strong statement means any practice or belief added to Islam that has no basis in the Quran or authentic Sunnah is not acceptable to Allah. It set the tone for reformers to weed out cultural or superstitious accretions in Muslim practice.

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "You will surely follow the ways of those who came before you, span by span and cubit by cubit, even if they entered a lizard's hole, you would follow." The Companions asked, "O Messenger of Allah, [do you mean] the Jews and Christians?" He (ﷺ) said, "Who else?!" (Sahih Bukhari)

This prophecy warned that some Muslims would blindly imitate other nations' ways, even absurdly. In the 19th-20th centuries, scholars cited this hadith to caution against uncritical adoption of Western customs or secular ideologies at the expense of Islamic principles. True reform, they argued, means renewal from within Islam rather than imitation of outsiders.

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "The best of my nation is my generation, then those who follow them, then those who follow them." (Sahih Bukhari)

He emphasized the excellence of the early generations of Islam (the pious Salaf). Many reformers took inspiration from this, arguing that the closer our beliefs and practices are to the Prophet (ﷺ) and his companions, the better. Movements seeking to return to the purity of early Islam often quoted this hadith. It reinforces the idea that reform is about going back to fundamentals - the Quran, the Prophet's Sunnah, and the understanding of the righteous early Muslims..

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "Islam began as something strange and will revert to being strange as it began, so glad tidings to the strangers." (Sahih Muslim 145)

This profound hadith foretells that there may come a time when truly practicing Islam becomes "strange" - uncommon or looked down upon - just as it was in the very beginning. Those who stick to true Islam during these times of widespread neglect or deviation are given good news. Many revivalists in the colonial era felt they were these "strangers" - reviving forgotten practices like sincere monotheism, hijab, or daily prayers, which some people had abandoned. They found comfort that despite being in a minority at times, they were on the path the Prophet (ﷺ) promised reward for.

The Prophet (ﷺ) also said: A group of my community will continue to remain upon the truth and be victorious until the Hour (Day of Judgment). (Sahih Muslim)

This is a reassurance that no matter how bad things get, there will always be a group of sincere Muslims holding onto the true teachings. Reformers often identified themselves with this victorious group - those striving to keep Islam alive and pure - and it gave them hope that their efforts would ultimately succeed by Allah's help.

there is a well-known hadith about the value of scholarly judgment which became relevant in modern times:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "If a judge (or scholar) gives a ruling, striving to decide correctly, and he is correct, he will have double reward. If he strives and is mistaken, he will still have a single reward." (Sahih Bukhari)

This encouragement of ijtihad (independent reasoning) showed that Islam allows learned scholars to deduce answers for new problems as long as they sincerely do their best to stay within Islamic principles. In the 19th and 20th centuries, some scholars argued that fresh ijtihad was needed to reform outdated cultural practices and address modern issues (like new technologies or political systems). This hadith assured them that trying to solve new matters in light of the Quran and Sunnah is a praiseworthy effort - even if not every conclusion is perfect, Allah rewards the sincere attempt.

Together, these hadith formed a framework for reformers (mujaddids): remove wrongful innovations, avoid blind imitation of non-Islamic ways, emulate the Prophet (ﷺ) and early Muslims, be ready to be "strangers" for the truth, and use scholarly effort (ijtihad) to apply Islam to new situations. The Prophetic guidance provided both a conservative guardrail (don't change Islam, don't add novelties) and a dynamic impulse (find fresh solutions through ijtihad, revive lost Sunnahs). This balance is exactly what genuine Islamic reform movements tried to achieve.

Historical Challenges of the 19th and 20th Centuries

Why did so many reform movements arise in the 1800s and 1900s? This period was a turning point in Muslim history. To appreciate the reformers' mission, we need to understand the backdrop they were responding to:

• Colonial Domination: By the mid-19th century, much of the Muslim world had fallen under European colonial rule or influence. The British, French, Dutch, and others controlled vast territories - from India to Egypt, from West Africa to Southeast Asia. Traditional Islamic governance (like the Mughal Empire or later the Ottoman territories) was replaced or weakened by foreign powers. This dominance was not just political; Western culture, law, and education were being imposed in many places. Muslims felt humiliated and struggled with how to respond: Should they imitate the West to catch up, or double-down on their own identity? Reformers emerged to answer this.

• Decline of the Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate: The Ottoman Empire, which many Sunni Muslims looked to as a last symbol of a Caliphate (central Islamic rule), was in decline through the 19th century. It attempted its own internal reforms (the Tanzimat), trying to modernize the army and administration by borrowing European models. Despite some successes, the empire continued to weaken, losing territories and finally collapsing after World War I. In 1924, the institution of the Caliphate was officially abolished. For the first time in over a millennium, there was no widely recognized Caliph. This had a profound psychological impact on Muslims. Reformers in the early 20th century were driven by the question of how to restore unity and leadership in the ummah or whether to reformulate governance in modern nation-state forms.

• Technological and Intellectual Change: The 19th-20th centuries saw the spread of new technologies (railways, telegraphs, printing presses, later radio) and new sciences and philosophies from Europe. Muslims encountered ideas like secularism, nationalism, and later socialism. Traditional religious scholars (ulema) had to grapple with questions they never faced before: How to run a modern bank without interest? How to educate masses in secular sciences? Is nationalism compatible with the Islamic concept of ummah? The printing press, for example, allowed far quicker spread of both Islamic knowledge and foreign ideas. Literacy rates slowly rose, and new intellectuals (some trained in Western institutions) began debating how Islam could or should adapt. This era forced Muslims to rethink many aspects of society - from law and education to family life - in light of both modern life and Islamic teachings.

• Internal Stagnation: Many reformers also pointed out that, by the 18th century, parts of the Muslim world had grown intellectually stagnant. In some regions, Islamic education had become rote, focused on classical texts but not keeping pace with changing conditions. There was a sense that the creative spirit of earlier scholars had waned. Some Muslim societies had also fallen into what reformers saw as un-Islamic customs and superstitions. For example, excessive veneration of saints or graves, folk rituals with no basis in Islam, or unjust social practices (like denying girls education) were cited as signs that Muslims had strayed from true Islam. These issues made the community weak and divided, which in turn made colonial conquest easier. Thus, reformers believed that Muslims had to reform themselves spiritually and morally in order to regain Allah's support and worldly strength.

In summary, the 19th and 20th centuries presented a crisis and an opportunity. The crisis was the loss of power, unity, and confidence as Muslims confronted Western domination and internal weaknesses. The opportunity was that these hardships sparked a widespread awakening. Across the globe, scholars, activists, and ordinary believers thought deeply about "Where did we go wrong, and how do we get back on track?" Their answers took various forms, but all sought a renewal (tajdid) of the ummah.

Next, we will explore some of the major reform movements and figures that arose from West Africa to Southeast Asia, each contributing to an Islamic revival in their own way.

Revival Movements Across the Muslim World

It's remarkable that in the 19th and 20th centuries, multiple movements, often working independently in different regions, all aimed to revive Islam's practice and reform society. We can group these movements into a few broad categories based on their approaches. There was significant diversity, but they shared an underlying goal of strengthening Islam in the hearts and lives of Muslims.

1. Purifying Faith and Practice - Return to Fundamentals

One major trend was the push to purify Islam from innovations and corruptions and go back to the fundamentals of tawhid (pure monotheism) and Sunnah. Reformers in this category felt that over centuries, some Muslims had adopted erroneous practices (like saint worship, grave offerings, or celebrating unIslamic festivals) that diluted true faith. They sought to cleanse these and restore religion as practiced by Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) and his companions.

• Arabia: In the Arabian Peninsula, Shaykh Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) led a reform movement calling people to strict monotheism and denouncing what he saw as shirk (polytheistic practices) and bid'ah (religious innovations). Although he started in the mid-18th century, his movement gained full force in the 19th and 20th centuries. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab allied with a local chief, Muhammad Saud, and this alliance eventually created the first Saudi state. His followers, often called Wahhabis (though they preferred the term Muwahhidun, "upholders of tawhid"), spread his teachings across Arabia. They emphasized following the Quran and Hadith to the letter, and rejected folk superstitions. They abolished lavish tomb shrines, discouraged seeking intercession through dead saints, and enforced the five daily prayers and Islamic modesty strictly. While controversial to some (and often misrepresented), this movement revived a focus on pure Islamic creed (aqeedah) and influenced reformers far beyond Arabia. In the 20th century, when the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was established, it patronized these teachings, which later came to be known broadly as the Salafi approach (calling back to the ways of the Salaf or early generations).

• West Africa: In West Africa, a great scholar named Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817) launched a reform and revival in Hausaland (modern-day Nigeria and Niger) in the early 1800s. He observed Muslim communities mixing Islamic teachings with tribal customs and saw unjust kings neglecting Sharia (Islamic law). Dan Fodio, a learned man, began preaching for a return to authentic Islam - calling for morality, knowledge, and the end of unjust practices. When he faced persecution by authorities, war broke out and he led a successful jihad to establish the Sokoto Caliphate in 1804. This new state was founded on Islamic principles; pagan practices were eliminated, education spread (even women's education, as Dan Fodio's daughter Nana Asma'u became a renowned scholar), and justice system was based on Sharia. The Sokoto Caliphate became one of the largest states in 19th-century Africa. Its success was viewed as a proof that reverting to pure Islam could bring strength and unity. Usman dan Fodio is often considered a mujaddid of his century in that region. His example inspired other West African revivalists, like the Sanusi movement in Libya and the Sudanese Mahdists (though the latter took a more apocalyptic turn), who also aimed to purify Islam and resist colonial encroachment.

• Indian Subcontinent (South Asia): In British-ruled India, several movements focused on purifying practice and creed among Muslims:

  • Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703-1762) was an earlier scholar in Delhi who set the stage by urging a renewal of Islamic thought and translating the Quran into Persian so people could understand it better. His ideas influenced later reformers.
  • Syed Ahmad Barelvi (Syed Ahmad of Rai Bareilly) (1786-1831) led a campaign in the 1820s to remove un-Islamic innovations and fought against Sikh rule in Punjab to establish an Islamic system. Though he was martyred, he left a legacy of emphasizing jihad and purification.
  • Ahl-i Hadith movement: By the mid-19th century, some scholars in India (like Nawab Siddiq Hasan Khan) promoted following Hadith directly and not blindly adhering to any one legal school (madhab). They were similar to the Arabian Salafis in stressing textual proofs over folk customs or centuries of precedent. The Ahl-i Hadith rejected cultural practices like excessive grave veneration. This movement paralleled the Wahhabi ideals and created a distinct group in India that identified simply as Sunni Muslims following the way of the Salaf. They established schools and publications to propagate Quran-Sunnah purity.
  • Deoband Movement: Interestingly, at the same time, scholars in India's Deoband (a town in North India) in 1866 founded the Darul Uloom Deoband, an Islamic seminary, to revive traditional Islamic scholarship. The Deobandis were dedicated to teaching Quran, Hadith, law, and purification of the soul. They were staunchly opposed to British cultural influences. While following the Hanafi school in jurisprudence, they emphasized adherence to Sunnah and condemned new customs that had no Sharia basis. They also eschewed worldly luxury, promoting simple living and piety. The Deobandi scholars - like Mawlana Qasim Nanotvi and later Mawlana Ashraf Ali Thanvi - helped rejuvenate Islamic learning in India. They produced thousands of graduates who spread religious knowledge throughout South Asia, countering Christian missionaries and Westernized trends. This was a grassroots revival - focusing on madrasa education, personal reform, and maintaining Islamic identity under colonial rule.

In all these examples, the common thread was "revival by going back to basics." These movements viewed the Quran and authentic Sunnah as a compass to steer Muslim society back on course. They often criticized Muslims' own errors more than external enemies, believing that once Muslims reformed themselves and eliminated internal weaknesses (whether theological deviations or moral laxity), they would naturally overcome external domination by Allah's help. Unity on fundamentals was a key message. Many of these groups ended up being quite conservative in outlook, resisting not only un-Islamic religious innovations but sometimes also new cultural influences (like Western dress or secular education) out of caution. Their positive contribution was to restore a pride in orthodox Islam, revive the study of scriptures, and renew personal piety in Muslim communities.

2. Modernist and Intellectual Reforms - Adapting to Modernity with Islam

Another trend was led by more modernist thinkers and scholars who were deeply concerned with the question: "How do we reconcile Islam with the modern world's progress in science, technology, and political thought?" They believed the decline of Muslims was partly due to a failure to keep up with modern knowledge and governance. However (crucially) they did not want to abandon Islam to imitate the West; rather, they wanted to reinterpret Islamic teachings to be dynamic and compatible with modern civilization. These reformers tried to prove that Islam is rational, flexible, and meant for all times.

• Egypt and the Arab World: The forefront of Islamic modernism was in Egypt. A trio of influential figures stands out:

  • Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838-1897): A charismatic pan-Islamic activist and intellectual, Afghani traveled throughout the Muslim world preaching unity and resistance to colonialism. He urged Muslims to acquire modern sciences and education to match Europe, while also rejecting the fatalism that made some passive. He famously argued that Islam properly understood encourages reason and progress. Al-Afghani edited journals and gave speeches attacking both colonial oppression and the blind conservatism of some local clerics. He is often called a "father of Islamic modernism" for igniting the idea that Islam and modernity are not incompatible.
  • Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905): A student of al-Afghani, Abduh became the Grand Mufti of Egypt and used his position to enact reforms. He believed in ijtihad - fresh legal reasoning - to update Islamic law for contemporary needs. For instance, he reformed Egypt's religious education, introducing secular subjects so that future scholars would be well-rounded. Abduh also attempted to reform Al-Azhar University's curriculum. In theology, he emphasized a return to the Quran's spirit, advocated rational interpretations, and often explained miracles or mystic verses metaphorically. He gave legal opinions that were considered bold for his time, like permitting interest-bearing savings accounts under certain conditions, to integrate modern finance within an Islamic ethical framework. Abduh's writings (such as "Risalat al-Tawhid" - The Theology of Unity) and his Quran commentary taught that Islam at its core is simple, ethical, and in harmony with reason. His famous quote upon visiting Europe was, "I went to the West and saw Islam, but no Muslims; I came back to the East and saw Muslims, but not much Islam." This summarized his view that Muslim societies needed to reclaim virtues (honesty, hard work, civic responsibility) that were actually Islamic but had been practiced by Westerners.
  • Rashid Rida (1865-1935): A disciple of Abduh, Rida continued the mission by publishing the journal Al-Manar, which spread reformist ideas across the Arabic-speaking world. He wrote an influential Quran commentary incorporating modern context. Over time, Rida became slightly more conservative than Abduh - especially after the fall of the Caliphate in 1924, he advocated for restoration of an Islamic government system. Still, he championed Shura (consultation) in politics - hinting that an Islamic government should have representative elements. Rida's work bridged the gap between early liberal reformism and later revivalism; in fact, he began using the term "Salafiyya" to describe a methodology of returning to the practices of the Prophet (ﷺ) and Salaf, but using modern tools. This term Salafi originally in Rida's usage meant reformist and anti-Western domination yet pro-science - quite an intellectual approach.

  These Egyptian/Levantine reformers influenced the entire Muslim world through their writings and students. They argued that Muslims should have constitutional government, modern education, and scientific spirit, all within the bounds of Islam. They pointed out how Islamic civilization in its golden age was dynamic and open to knowledge, and that colonization succeeded only because Muslims had grown weak and ignorant, straying from true Islam's emphasis on education and justice. Their call was to renew Islamic thought, for example, Abduh encouraged reinterpretation of certain legal rulings that had been suitable for past but not explicitly fixed if circumstances changed. They faced opposition from some traditional ulema who feared any change, but their ideas took root especially among the emerging urban educated classes.

• South Asia: In British India, a similar modernist impulse arose:

  • Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898): A contemporary of Abduh in India, Sir Syed was a scholar and educator who felt Muslims must embrace modern knowledge to avoid falling further behind. After seeing the British superior technology and administration, he concluded that Muslims needed modern education alongside religious knowledge. He founded the Aligarh Muslim University (originally Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College) in 1875 to teach science, English, and other subjects in a Muslim environment. Sir Syed also wrote modernist interpretations of Islam - for example, he rationalized some miracles, and he encouraged a reinterpretation of Islamic law in light of reason and social change. He argued for loyalty to British rule as a way for Muslims to advance (this was controversial, especially after the Indian Rebellion of 1857). Many traditional scholars (like the Deobandis) criticized Sir Syed's approach, accusing him of diluting Islam under Western influence. But his drive came from wanting Muslims to restore their dignity through knowledge. His movement, often called the Aligarh movement, created a class of Western-educated Muslims who still identified with Islam. While some of Sir Syed's theological views didn't gain wide acceptance, his push for modern education definitely left a lasting legacy in South Asia.

  • Challenging Colonial Narratives: Other intellectuals in late 19th/early 20th century India also wrote about reconciling Islam with modern ideas. Chiragh Ali, Syed Ameer Ali, and later Muhammad Iqbal can be mentioned. Iqbal, the famous poet-philosopher, in the 1930s delivered lectures ("The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam") arguing for ijtihad and that Islam's legal framework could accommodate democratic principles. He envisaged a Muslim state in northwest India to rejuvenate Islam (this inspired Pakistan's creation). Iqbal believed Islam always contained the seeds of progress - for example, the concept of ijtihad is like the legislative power of modern states, meaning Muslims could enact fresh laws via juristic consensus within Quranic guidance. These modernist voices collectively insisted that Islam is not incompatible with modern progress; rather, a reformed, enlightened Islam should lead Muslims to both spiritual and worldly success.

In summary, the modernist reformers sought a middle path: they rejected the notion that Muslims must copy the West blindly (they were proud of Islam's unique values), yet they also rejected the idea of isolating from modern developments. They aimed to reform Islamic thought by removing what they saw as excess rigidity or literalism, encouraging rational inquiry and ethical principles. They stressed education, science, and political reform (like constitutionalism) as tools for Muslim rejuvenation. These ideas were influential in the early 20th century and laid groundwork for many later developments, including the emergence of modern Islamic universities, reformed school curricula, and even contemporary Islamic banking (efforts to adapt finance to religious norms). However, some critics feared that in trying to "modernize" Islam, a few modernists went too far in reinterpreting core tenets. The debate they started (how far can tajdid go?) remains lively today in the Muslim world.

3. Social and Political Activism - Revival through Organization and Activism

As the 20th century progressed, especially after World War I, a new wave of Islamic reform took a social and political character. Rather than focus only on theology or education, these movements aimed to reorganize Muslim society and governance according to Islam. They believed that only by establishing Islamic principles in public life could the full revival happen. Some key examples:

• The Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan al-Muslimin): Founded in Egypt in 1928 by Hasan al-Banna (1906-1949), the Muslim Brotherhood became one of the most significant Islamic revivalist organizations of the 20th century. Al-Banna was a schoolteacher distressed by British colonial presence and the erosion of Islamic values in Egypt. He believed that Muslims needed a holistic revival - spiritually, morally, and politically. The Brotherhood's slogan was: "Islam is the solution" and "Islam is a complete way of life." It built networks of schools, charities, and took part in anti-colonial activism. Al-Banna taught adherence to Sunnah, personal piety (prayer, charity), and social service. But he also advocated that Egypt be governed by Islamic principles and law, gradually through education and reform, not sudden force. The Brotherhood attracted many educated youth and workers with its call for an Islam-based social justice (they spoke against corruption, poverty, and Western decadence). They even formed volunteer forces to fight in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. By mid-20th century, the Brotherhood had spread to other countries. It showed how a reform movement could evolve into a broad socio-political force, aiming for an Islamic state through grassroots work and political involvement.

• Jamaat-e-Islami: In British India (later Pakistan), Syed Abul A'la Maududi (1903-1979) founded Jamaat-e-Islami in 1941. Maududi was an Islamic journalist-scholar who, like others, witnessed Muslims under foreign rule and losing Islamic practices. He concluded that partial measures weren't enough - there must be an all-out effort to establish Islam in all spheres of life, including governance. Jamaat-e-Islami started as a movement to educate Muslims about Islamic government, promote Sharia law implementation, and oppose both Westernization and secular nationalism. Maududi wrote influential works (like "Islamic Law and Constitution" and "Towards Understanding Islam") explaining that Islam is not just personal rituals but an integrated system covering politics, economics, and society. He introduced terms like "Islamic ideology" and argued Islam was inherently democratic (consultative) and just, superior to any man-made "isms." After Pakistan's creation, Jamaat-e-Islami worked as a political party pushing for Islamic constitution and laws. While they started with only a small cadre, their ideas impacted Pakistan's eventual identity as an "Islamic Republic" and inspired Islamist movements elsewhere. Maududi's vision essentially was a modern Islamic state run by God's law, achieved through gradual, peaceful reform and persuasion of society.

Both the Brotherhood and Jamaat were Sunni revivalist movements that differed from earlier reformers by their high level of organization and political engagement. They didn't just write books or preach, they built membership, had leadership structures, and aimed to influence or take power through popular support. This model is often termed "Islamism", not in a negative sense, but meaning Islamic activism to reorder society. They drew on earlier reform ideas: emphasis on Quran and Sunnah, moral cleansing, education, but added a focus on socio-political change (like enacting Sharia-based laws, resisting imperialism, etc.).

• Grassroots Piety Movements: Not all organized movements were political; some aimed purely at spiritual and moral reform among the masses:

  • Tablighi Jamaat: Started in 1926 in India by Maulana Ilyas Kandhalawi, Tablighi Jamaat focused on reconnecting ordinary Muslims with fundamental practices (prayer, remembering Allah, avoiding sins). It was a response to widespread neglect of basics, especially among ordinary folk. The method was simple: small groups of volunteer preachers go door to door, village to village, reminding people to pray, attend the mosque, and follow Islamic manners. Tablighi Jamaat was non-political and non-confrontational - they deliberately avoided contentious debates. Instead, they emphasize personal reform and emulation of the Prophet (ﷺ) and his companions in daily life. Over decades, this movement spread globally, and millions have attended Tablighi missions (known as khuruj). The movement showed that reform can also mean reviving faith in hearts on a large scale, without directly engaging in politics. Their success is seen in how many people credit them for becoming practicing Muslims again. Essentially, they worked from the ground up - one individual at a time - to create a spiritually reformed community.

  • Sufi Orders with Reformist Agendas: While we avoid going deep into Sufi content, it's noteworthy that some Islamic mystic (Sufi) orders themselves underwent reform in this era. Certain Sufi leaders in 19th/20th century, such as the Sanusi order in North Africa or Naqshbandi Mujaddidi order, combined spiritual teachings with calls for strict Sharia adherence and anti-colonial activism. They tried to purge Sufism of excesses and return to a more sober, scripture-based spirituality. This way, even mystically inclined Muslims participated in the broader reform atmosphere, emphasizing that true spirituality must be anchored in the Quran and Sunnah. A prominent example is Imam Shamil in the Caucasus (Dagestan) who led a Naqshbandi Sufi-inspired resistance against Russian conquest in the 1800s; he preached religious purity and jihad against oppressors, blending inner reform with outward struggle.

• National Independence and Reform: As the colonial era ended after WWII, many new Muslim-majority nations emerged. Some leaders of independence movements were also Islamic reformists. For instance, Allama Iqbal in India/Pakistan (though he died before independence) and Abdelkrim al-Khattabi in Morocco or Omar Mukhtar in Libya invoked Islam to mobilize their people. The idea was that throwing off colonial rule was part of Islamic revival - regaining the freedom to implement Islamic values. However, post-independence, many states adopted secular or mixed systems. This in turn gave further energy in late 20th century to movements calling for a deeper Islamization of society and law, seeing political freedom as incomplete without spiritual and moral reform in the nation.

By the late 20th century (1970s and beyond), an "Islamic resurgence" was noted by many observers. After a period of secular experiments, populations in countries like Egypt, Pakistan, Malaysia, etc., showed renewed interest in Islamic identity, higher mosque attendance, Islamic dress, popularity of Islamic literature. This was partly due to the groundwork of the reform movements we discussed. The 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran (though Shia-led and outside our scope) and the Afghan jihad against the Soviet invasion (1979-89) further galvanized global Muslim consciousness around the idea of returning to religion for solutions. While those are separate stories, they intersect with Sunni reform trends in that the global Muslim ummah was experiencing a revival of religious sentiment and a call for authentic Islamic governance and lifestyle, after a lull of Westernized secular approaches.

It's important to mention: not all consequences of these movements were positive or as intended. Some splinter groups took extreme interpretations (for example, some offshoots of the Brotherhood ideology later became rigid or militant). But the mainstream movements themselves, whether focusing on creed, intellectual reform, or sociopolitical awakening, were generally rooted in the idea of moderation (avoiding excess on either side). They rejected laxity in faith, but also rejected fanaticism that violates Islamic ethics.

Views of Islamic Scholars on Reform and Differences in Approach

Throughout this reformist wave, classical and contemporary scholars provided guidance on what constitutes true reform. A famous saying in Arabic is "Al-Islam muhammadiyyun sâlih likulli zamân wa makân", "Islam, as brought by Muhammad (ﷺ), is suitable for every time and place." Scholars taught that because the Quran and Sunnah are comprehensive and flexible, each generation can find guidance for its unique circumstances without altering the religion's core.

Classical Commentary: Early scholars had anticipated the need for periodic renewal. Many referenced the hadith about mujaddids. For instance, Imam Al-Suyuti (15th century) even wrote an essay listing who he believed were the renewers of each century up to his time. He named figures like Caliph Umar ibn Abdul Aziz (for the 1st century after Prophet), Imam Al-Shafi'i (2nd century), Imam Al-Ghazali (5th century), etc., as mujaddids who renewed aspects of the faith. This shows that "reform" (tajdid) in the sense of revival has always been part of Sunni understanding, it is not a modern invention. Al-Suyuti's list and others make clear that a mujaddid could be a scholar, a just ruler, or even a movement, who restores the vigor of Islam. This gave 19th-20th century reformers a sense of legitimacy, they felt they were fulfilling a Prophetic prediction and a scholarly expectation.

Major Sunni Schools of Law (Madhabs): Interestingly, the movements we discussed were not strictly defined by the four Sunni legal schools (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanbali). Reformers and scholars from all four madhabs participated in revival. For example, the Deobandi revivalists were Hanafi jurists; the Arabian reform (Wahhabi/Salafi) was rooted in Hanbali tradition; many modernists in Egypt were trained in a mix of Hanafi-Shafi'i tradition (Ottoman influence); West African revivals were led by Maliki scholars. The goal of reform, returning to Quran-Sunnah authenticity, is common to all schools. All Sunni schools historically agree that if the Muslim community faces new issues, scholars can do ijtihad (if qualified) to derive solutions from the sources. However, by the 18th century, a perception existed that "the gates of ijtihad were closed", meaning scholars mostly did taqlid (follow past jurists) rather than fresh reasoning. Many 19th-century reformers challenged this stagnation. They argued that each school's founders themselves were mujtahids and that true loyalty to their legacy meant being open to ijtihad when needed, not rigidly imitating past rulings in changed circumstances.

In practice, differences arose more from outlook than madhab:

• Traditionalist scholars were wary of too much change. They feared that unqualified people making new interpretations might erode the purity of Islam. They tended to stress continuity with past scholarship (taqlid is not a bad word to them; it means humility and preserving accumulated wisdom).
• Reformist scholars (whether modernists or Salafis) felt that the fast-changing world required re-examining some centuries-old positions. They stressed ijtihad and direct reference to scriptures. They often criticized blind adherence to scholars if it appeared to conflict with clear evidence from Quran or Hadith.

Both sides, however, affirmed the same fundamentals of faith. It's notable that several revival movements were actually led by traditionally trained ulema, indicating that being reform-minded did not always mean breaking from the scholarly establishment. For instance, many Deobandi scholars had the chain of knowledge (ijaza) in classical texts but still pursued renewal in practice and teaching methods. Conversely, even modernist Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, though at odds with conservative ulema, upheld many core Sunni beliefs and argued from Quranic texts (just with a different lens).

Modern Scholarly Commentary: In the 20th century, widely respected scholars continued to discuss reform. One prominent voice, Shaykh Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1926-2022), a graduate of Al-Azhar, wrote "Islamic Awakening Between Rejection and Extremism" in the 1980s, reflecting on the revival movements. He praised the return of Muslims to religiosity (the awakening), but warned of two pitfalls:

• Tamyi' (watering down): On one side, some might call for "reform" but actually want to dilute Islam to mimic the West completely, losing the religion's essence. Qaradawi argued this is not true reform but capitulation. For example, those who say "update Islam by discarding hijab, interest prohibition, etc." are actually abandoning parts of Islam. He said Islam doesn't need a Reformation like Christianity did (because Islam has no priesthood or fixed medieval dogmas) - rather, it needs a restoration to its original pure form and wise application.
• Tashaddud (extremism): On the other side, some zealots in the revival became so harsh and uncompromising that they drove people away or fostered conflict. He warned against an extremist mindset that might justify violence or blanket takfir (calling other Muslims unbelievers) in the name of "reform."

Scholars like him stressed balance (wasatiyyah), the Quran calls Muslims "a middle nation" (Quran 2:143). So, the best reformers are those who renew the faith with wisdom and compassion, not those who either distort it for fashion or turn it into something hard and unapproachable. This balanced approach is actually the hallmark of Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jama'ah, the mainstream of Sunni Islam, which values the middle path, neither secularist nor fanatic.

Another modern scholar, Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi (1913-1999) from India, wrote a famous series "Saviours of Islamic Spirit" highlighting personalities through history who revived Islam. He included 19th-20th century figures as well, presenting them as part of Allah's plan to renew the ummah's faith. Scholars like Nadwi and others essentially gave Muslims a sense of continuity: what you are experiencing now (efforts to reform) are part of a long tradition going back to the Prophet (ﷺ) himself. This perspective encouraged Muslims to participate positively in revival, seeing it as a sign of Allah's mercy that renewal always comes.

Miracles and Prophecies

Although reform movements are a human effort, many Muslims view their success as a kind of miracle or divine aid. The survival of Islam through the colonial onslaught, and its resurgence in the late 20th century, is seen as fulfilling the Prophet's prophecies mentioned earlier. For instance, despite powerful attempts to secularize Muslim societies (at one point, it seemed religion might be totally sidelined), by the end of the 20th century there was a notable re-Islamization. This can be seen as an amazing turnaround, an Ummah revival that outsiders did not expect. Some point to the hadith about Islam entering every house: "This matter (Islam) will keep spreading as far as night and day reach…" and marvel how Islam indeed spread to new regions (even in the West, Islam became one of the fastest growing religions). They believe these developments are signs of the inherent truth of Islam and Allah's support.

Even the concept of a mujaddid each century is itself a minor prophecy that many believe has been manifest. Every century, scholars retroactively identified at least one great person who rejuvenated the faith. The 19th century had multiple candidates (e.g., Afghani, perhaps), the 20th century perhaps saw figures like Hasan al-Banna or Abul A'la Maududi considered by some as renewers. The consistency of this phenomenon could be seen as almost miraculous, that whenever darkness spread, a light of guidance appeared. This reinforces the trust Muslims have that Allah protects Islam: as the Quran says, "We have sent down the Reminder (Quran) and We will surely guard it." (Quran 15:9).

Conclusion: Lessons for Today's Muslims

The reform movements of the 19th and 20th centuries show the resilience of Islam and provide many lessons for us today. Faced with loss and decline, Muslims did not abandon their faith; instead, they turned back to it for solutions. Each movement, in its own way, tried to connect the eternal teachings of Islam with the present needs of the people. This dynamic continues even now in the 21st century.

How does this history affect us and how should we move forward?

• Hold on to the Quran and Sunnah: The reformers proved that the Quran and the example of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) have the guidance we need for all times. Whenever Muslims strayed or felt confused, returning to these sources brought clarity and unity. We too, in a rapidly changing world of technology and social change, must continually refer back to our foundations. If something new challenges us - be it an ethical dilemma, a social trend - we ask: What do the Quran and authentic Sunnah say about this? This principle safeguards the truth of Islam in our lives.

• Embrace Tajdid (Positive Change) in our Lives: Tajdid is not just an academic concept; it's something each of us can practice. We should regularly renew our faith and practices. The Prophet (ﷺ) taught that faith can wear out in the heart like clothes wear out, so we should ask Allah to renew faith in our hearts. This personal renewal can be through seeking knowledge, increasing our worship and sincerity, removing bad habits, and adopting forgotten Sunnahs. Just as communities require reform, our individual heart needs reform too. As the Quran indicated, Allah changes our condition when we change ourselves (13:11). If we all strive for self-improvement according to Islam, the overall ummah will rise, insha'Allah.

• Balance and Wisdom: We learn from the reformers the importance of a balanced approach. We shouldn't misunderstand reform as either throwing away all tradition or as resisting any new idea blindly. Islam's view is the best because it is balanced - it calls us to take the middle path. We appreciate useful new knowledge (science, technology, etc.) without losing our religious identity. We remove cultural practices that contradict Islam, but we also respect our scholarly heritage and do not cut ourselves off from it. The middle path helped the successful reformers appeal to people's hearts. It is often said, "Al-dinu yusr" - the religion is ease - meaning Islam is meant to be reasonable and facilitate human welfare, not to impose hardship (within halal limits). In reform, this translates to using gentle persuasion, not force; using wisdom (hikmah) as the Quran commands: "Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good advice" (Quran 16:125).

• Education and Knowledge: A recurring theme of all reforms was reviving knowledge. Ignorance was seen as a root cause of decline. Indeed, the first word revealed in the Quran was "Iqra" (Read!). Whether it was traditional madrasa learning or modern science, the reformers pushed Muslims to educate themselves. Today, we must carry that torch: encourage both religious and worldly education in our communities. An educated Muslim is better able to serve Islam, whether by teaching others, refuting misconceptions, or contributing to economic and scientific development of the ummah. Knowledge lights the path of reform so we don't stumble in the darkness of confusion.

• Unity and Brotherhood: Almost all reformers lamented the divisions among Muslims. They reminded us of the Quranic command to hold onto the rope of Allah together and not divide (3:103). We should learn from past schisms and avoid sectarianism or partisan bias. Unity does not mean uniformity in every minor detail, but it means focusing on our common beliefs (the vast majority of our creed and practices) and working together on that basis. When Muslims united around common goals - for example, throwing off colonial rule or defending their lands - they succeeded. When they were disunited, they were easily defeated or exploited. In today's context, unity means fostering tolerance among the various schools of thought, resolving disputes through dialogue and reference to evidence, and having a shared vision for the Muslim community's future.

• Confidence in Islam's Future: The history we reviewed should actually fill our hearts with hope and confidence. Time and again, Islam has shown an amazing capacity to rebound. By the start of the 20th century, some Western observers thought Islam would fade as modernization advanced. But the opposite happened: faith surged back in many places. This tells us that Islam is deeply rooted in the fitrah (innate nature) of humans - it addresses spiritual needs that no material progress can replace. It also tells us Allah's promise is true: if we help His cause, He will help us (Quran 47:7). As Muslims today, we should not despair at any difficulties. Instead, we can be part of the ongoing renewal. We might be ordinary people, but we can still contribute - by raising our families on Islam, doing charitable work, correcting a wrong when we see it, or simply being a good example of Muslim character in society. These small acts accumulate to a great wave of positive change.

Lastly, we should remember that Allah is ultimately in control, and He has a plan for this Ummah. The Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) said that Allah will continue to raise people to revive the faith. Perhaps the next mujaddid could be among the youth reading and learning about Islam today. The duty of each Muslim is to sincerely ask Allah to reform us and use us for reforming others. We say "O Allah, renew the faith in our hearts and in our community."

The Quran beautifully states:

"By the passage of time! Surely, humanity is in loss - except those who believe, do good deeds, urge one another to truth, and urge one another to perseverance." (Quran 103:1-3).

This means success lies in true belief, righteous action, and collectively encouraging truth and patience. The reform movements were essentially groups of Muslims doing exactly this - urging each other to truth and patience amid trials. We too must carry that mantle. With strong faith, knowledge, and unity, guided by the Quran and the Prophet's Sunnah, we can face any modern challenge and ensure that the light of Islam shines ever bright for generations to come.

Glad tidings to the strangers who keep the flame of faith alive, may Allah make us among them, and may He continue to send guidance and renewal to this Ummah. The story of Islam in the 19th and 20th centuries teaches us that after hardship comes ease, and after periods of weakness, Allah brings back strength to those who remain steadfast. This is the ongoing miracle of Islam's regeneration, a testament to its divine truth and beauty that no force can extinguish.

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