Reform Movements in the 19th and 20th Centuries

What Does Reform Mean in Islam?

In Islamic terms, reform is not about changing the religion itself (since Islam is believed to be complete and perfect) but about renewing our commitment to its authentic teachings. The Arabic word for reform, islah (إصلاح), literally means "to improve, restore, or put things right." It appears in the Quran to describe actions that correct or reconcile situations. For example, Prophet Shu'ayb said to his people:

"I only desire reform (islah) as much as I am able. My success is only by Allah." (Quran 11:88)

Another related term is tajdid (تجديد), meaning renewal. The Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) taught that Islam would periodically be renewed. He said:

"Allah will raise for this community at the head of every hundred years those who will renew its religion for it." (Sunan Abu Dawud 4291)

Hadith scholars have generally accepted this report as authentic or sound, and its wording can include one renewer or more than one in a given age. Such people are often called mujaddidun (renewers). This hadith reassures Muslims that Allah will preserve guidance in the ummah and raise scholars, leaders, or efforts that revive neglected truths. Importantly, reform in Islam means returning to the pure teachings of the Quran and the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), removing corruptions and blameworthy religious innovations, and applying Islam's principles to current challenges. It does not mean altering the core beliefs, obligations, prohibitions, or pillars of the religion; nor does it require rejecting permissible customs or useful worldly tools that do not contradict Sharia.

Islamic reform is essentially a revival (ihya) of the original message's spirit. The religion itself does not need changing, since Allah says:

"Today I have perfected your religion for you, and completed My favor upon you, and have approved Islam as the way of life for you." (Quran 5:3)

Instead, reformers focus on changing the Muslims themselves for the better (in belief, practice, and society) to realign with Islam's perfection. This often involves education, purifying religious practices, moral upliftment, and sometimes social or political activism, all guided by authentic Islamic principles.

Quranic Guidance for Renewal and Reform

The Quran, believed by Muslims to be the literal word of Allah, provides timeless guidance that inspired reform movements. Many verses emphasize the need for communities to improve themselves, stay true to divine guidance, and avoid stagnation or decline. Here are some of the key Quranic teachings related to reform and renewal:

"Indeed, Allah will not change the condition of a people until they change what is in themselves." (Quran 13:11)

(This verse teaches that positive change in our fate begins with inner moral and spiritual reform.)

"That is because Allah would not change a favor which He had bestowed upon a people until they change what is within themselves." (Quran 8:53)

(Blessings last only if people remain righteous; if we become corrupt, Allah may withdraw His favor until we reform.)

"Let there be a group among you who call to goodness, enjoin what is right, and forbid what is wrong - those are the successful." (Quran 3:104).

(This urges the Muslim community to actively promote virtue and correct wrongs - essentially a Quranic call for societal reform.)

"You [Muslims] are the best nation produced for mankind: you enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong and believe in Allah." (Quran 3:110)

(The Quran defines the Muslim ummah's mission as leading by example, reforming society by spreading good and preventing evil.)

"Hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided." (Quran 3:103)

(True reform also means uniting upon Allah's guidance (the "rope of Allah" often interpreted as the Quran) rather than fracturing into sects.)

"And if you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you believe in Allah and the Last Day." (Quran 4:59)

(All reform efforts must ultimately be checked against the Quran and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ). Returning to these primary sources is the way to resolve disputes and correct the course.)

"O believers! Respond to Allah and the Messenger when he calls you to that which gives you life." (Quran 8:24)

(This beautiful verse describes the Quranic message as giving life to the hearts and communities. Reformers used it to remind people that true vitality and progress come from adhering to faith.)

"Allah has promised those among you who believe and do righteous deeds that He will surely grant them authority on earth... and He will surely establish for them their religion which He has chosen for them." (Quran 24:55)

(Here is a promise that if Muslims hold firmly to faith and righteousness, Allah will empower them and renew their strength. Many saw this as motivation that revival of religious practice would lead to success in the world.)

"Do not weaken or grieve: you will be superior if you are (true) believers." (Quran 3:139)

(Even in times of decline, Muslims are reminded that the remedy is to strengthen their faith. Worldly honor is tied to true belief.)

All these verses (and many others) reassured 19th and 20th-century Muslims that the key to renewal was in their own hands, through Allah's guidance. They had to purify their beliefs, strengthen their unity, actively promote good, and return to the Quran and prophetic example. The Quran provided both spiritual motivation and a blueprint for action: change starts from within, and Allah helps those who help themselves.

Prophetic Teachings on Renewal and Innovation

The Hadith, sayings of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ), are the second fundamental source of guidance in Islam. Many authentic hadith directly address issues of religious renewal and warn against corrupting the religion with unfounded innovations. These hadith became rallying calls for reformers:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "He who innovates something in this matter of ours (Islam) that is not from it will have it rejected." (Reported by Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim)

This strong statement means any practice or belief added to Islam that has no basis in the Quran or authentic Sunnah is not acceptable to Allah. It set the tone for reformers to weed out cultural or superstitious accretions in Muslim practice.

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "You will surely follow the ways of those who came before you, span by span and cubit by cubit, even if they entered a lizard's hole, you would follow." The Companions asked, "O Messenger of Allah, [do you mean] the Jews and Christians?" He (ﷺ) said, "Who else?!" (Sahih Bukhari)

This prophecy warned that some Muslims would blindly imitate other nations' ways, even absurdly. In the 19th-20th centuries, scholars cited this hadith to caution against uncritical adoption of Western customs or secular ideologies at the expense of Islamic principles. True reform, they argued, means renewal from within Islam rather than imitation of outsiders.

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "The best of my nation is my generation, then those who follow them, then those who follow them." (Sahih Bukhari)

He emphasized the excellence of the early generations of Islam (the pious Salaf). Many reformers took inspiration from this, arguing that the closer our beliefs and practices are to the Prophet (ﷺ) and his companions, the better. Movements seeking to return to the purity of early Islam often quoted this hadith. It reinforces the idea that reform is about going back to fundamentals - the Quran, the Prophet's Sunnah, and the understanding of the righteous early Muslims..

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "Islam began as something strange and will revert to being strange as it began, so glad tidings to the strangers." (Sahih Muslim 145)

This profound hadith foretells that there may come a time when truly practicing Islam becomes "strange" - uncommon or looked down upon - just as it was in the very beginning. Those who stick to true Islam during these times of widespread neglect or deviation are given good news. Many revivalists in the colonial era felt they were these "strangers" - reviving forgotten practices like sincere monotheism, hijab, or daily prayers, which some people had abandoned. They found comfort that despite being in a minority at times, they were on the path the Prophet (ﷺ) promised reward for.

The Prophet (ﷺ) also said: A group of my community will continue to remain upon the truth and be victorious until the Hour (Day of Judgment). (Sahih Muslim)

This is a reassurance that no matter how bad things get, there will always be a group of sincere Muslims holding onto the true teachings. Reformers often identified themselves with this victorious group - those striving to keep Islam alive and pure - and it gave them hope that their efforts would ultimately succeed by Allah's help.

there is a well-known hadith about the value of scholarly judgment which became relevant in modern times:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "If a judge (or scholar) gives a ruling, striving to decide correctly, and he is correct, he will have double reward. If he strives and is mistaken, he will still have a single reward." (Sahih Bukhari)

This hadith is an important proof for qualified ijtihad: a judge or jurist who has the required knowledge of the Quran, Sunnah, Arabic, consensus, legal maxims, and the methods of deduction may strive to reach a ruling on new or difficult questions. It is not a license for every sincere person to issue independent rulings without training, and it does not make every mistaken view correct. Rather, it shows Allah's mercy toward qualified scholars who exert themselves honestly. In the 19th and 20th centuries, many scholars argued that fresh ijtihad was needed for issues such as new technologies, modern administration, education, and finance, while remaining bound by the established principles of Sharia.

Together, these hadith formed a framework for reformers (mujaddids): remove wrongful innovations, avoid blind imitation of non-Islamic ways, emulate the Prophet (ﷺ) and early Muslims, be ready to be "strangers" for the truth, and use scholarly effort (ijtihad) to apply Islam to new situations. The Prophetic guidance provided both a conservative guardrail (don't change Islam, don't add novelties) and a dynamic impulse (find fresh solutions through ijtihad, revive lost Sunnahs). This balance is exactly what genuine Islamic reform movements tried to achieve.

Historical Challenges of the 19th and 20th Centuries

Why did so many reform movements arise in the 1800s and 1900s? This period was a turning point in Muslim history. To appreciate the reformers' mission, we need to understand the backdrop they were responding to:

• Colonial Domination: By the mid-19th century, much of the Muslim world had fallen under European colonial rule or influence. The British, French, Dutch, and others controlled vast territories - from India to Egypt, from West Africa to Southeast Asia. Traditional Islamic governance (like the Mughal Empire or later the Ottoman territories) was replaced or weakened by foreign powers. This dominance was not just political; Western culture, law, and education were being imposed in many places. Muslims felt humiliated and struggled with how to respond: Should they imitate the West to catch up, or double-down on their own identity? Reformers emerged to answer this.

• Decline of the Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate: The Ottoman Empire, which many Sunni Muslims looked to as a last symbol of a Caliphate (central Islamic rule), was in decline through the 19th century. It attempted its own internal reforms (the Tanzimat), trying to modernize the army and administration by borrowing European models. Despite some successes, the empire continued to weaken, losing territories and finally collapsing after World War I. In 1924, the Turkish Grand National Assembly abolished the Ottoman Caliphate. Earlier caliphal claims had not always been universally recognized, and Muslim lands had long included many local dynasties and rulers, but the disappearance of even a widely known symbolic caliphal office had a profound psychological and political impact on many Muslims. Reformers in the early 20th century were driven by the question of how to restore unity and leadership in the ummah or whether to reformulate governance in modern nation-state forms.

• Technological and Intellectual Change: The 19th-20th centuries saw the spread of new technologies (railways, telegraphs, printing presses, later radio) and new sciences and philosophies from Europe. Muslims encountered ideas like secularism, nationalism, and later socialism. Traditional religious scholars (ulema) had to grapple with questions they never faced before: How to run a modern bank without interest? How to educate masses in secular sciences? Is nationalism compatible with the Islamic concept of ummah? The printing press, for example, allowed far quicker spread of both Islamic knowledge and foreign ideas. Literacy rates slowly rose, and new intellectuals (some trained in Western institutions) began debating how Islam could or should adapt. This era forced Muslims to rethink many aspects of society - from law and education to family life - in light of both modern life and Islamic teachings.

• Internal Stagnation: Many reformers also pointed out that, by the 18th century, parts of the Muslim world had grown intellectually stagnant. In some regions, Islamic education had become rote, focused on classical texts but not keeping pace with changing conditions. There was a sense that the creative spirit of earlier scholars had waned. Some Muslim societies had also fallen into what reformers saw as un-Islamic customs and superstitions. For example, excessive veneration of saints or graves, folk rituals with no basis in Islam, or unjust social practices (like denying girls education) were cited as signs that Muslims had strayed from true Islam. These issues made the community weak and divided, which in turn made colonial conquest easier. Thus, reformers believed that Muslims had to reform themselves spiritually and morally in order to regain Allah's support and worldly strength.

In summary, the 19th and 20th centuries presented a crisis and an opportunity. The crisis was the loss of power, unity, and confidence as Muslims confronted Western domination and internal weaknesses. The opportunity was that these hardships sparked a widespread awakening. Across the globe, scholars, activists, and ordinary believers thought deeply about "Where did we go wrong, and how do we get back on track?" Their answers took various forms, but all sought a renewal (tajdid) of the ummah.

Next, we will explore some of the major reform movements and figures that arose from West Africa to Southeast Asia, each contributing to an Islamic revival in their own way.

Revival Movements Across the Muslim World

It's remarkable that in the 19th and 20th centuries, multiple movements, often working independently in different regions, all aimed to revive Islam's practice and reform society. We can group these movements into a few broad categories based on their approaches. There was significant diversity, but they shared an underlying goal of strengthening Islam in the hearts and lives of Muslims.

1. Purifying Faith and Practice - Return to Fundamentals

One major trend was the push to purify Islam from innovations and corruptions and go back to the fundamentals of tawhid (pure monotheism) and Sunnah. Reformers in this category felt that over centuries, some Muslims had adopted erroneous practices (like saint worship, grave offerings, or celebrating unIslamic festivals) that diluted true faith. They sought to cleanse these and restore religion as practiced by Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) and his companions.

• Arabia: In the Arabian Peninsula, Shaykh Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) led an 18th-century reform movement calling people to tawhid and denouncing practices he regarded as shirk and blameworthy bid'ah. His influence continued strongly into the 19th and 20th centuries through the Saudi states. He allied with the local ruler Muhammad ibn Saud, and that religious-political alliance helped form the first Saudi state. His followers were often called Wahhabis by opponents, while many of them preferred terms such as Muwahhidun or later Salafis. They emphasized the Quran, Hadith, and the understanding of the early Muslims, while also drawing heavily on the Hanbali legal and theological heritage. They opposed practices such as supplicating to the dead, making vows or sacrifices at graves, and treating saints as having independent power - matters that Sunni scholars broadly agree are forbidden and may become shirk when worship is directed to other than Allah. At the same time, Sunni scholarship contains legitimate distinctions on issues such as visiting graves, asking the living righteous for du'a, and some forms of tawassul; these should not be flattened into one ruling. The movement also destroyed domed tombs and shrines and enforced public religious norms, sometimes by state power, and its expansion involved warfare and sharp criticism from Ottoman and other Sunni scholars, especially over takfir and political violence. Its lasting contribution was to renew concern for creed, tawhid, and opposition to superstition, but its history should be presented with both its reformist aims and its controversies. In the 20th century, Saudi patronage spread this Hanbali-Salafi da'wah widely, though modern Salafi trends are diverse and not identical to every earlier use of the word Salafiyya.

• West Africa: In West Africa, a great scholar named Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817) launched a reform and revival in Hausaland (modern-day Nigeria and Niger) in the early 1800s. He observed Muslim communities mixing Islamic teachings with tribal customs and saw unjust kings neglecting Sharia (Islamic law). Dan Fodio, a learned man, began preaching for a return to authentic Islam - calling for morality, knowledge, and the end of unjust practices. When he faced persecution by authorities, war broke out and he led a successful jihad to establish the Sokoto Caliphate in 1804. This new state was founded on Islamic principles; pagan practices were eliminated, education spread (even women's education, as Dan Fodio's daughter Nana Asma'u became a renowned scholar), and justice system was based on Sharia. The Sokoto Caliphate became one of the largest states in 19th-century Africa. Its success was viewed as a proof that reverting to pure Islam could bring strength and unity. Usman dan Fodio is often considered a mujaddid of his century in that region. His example belonged to a wider 19th-century pattern of Islamic revival and state-building across Africa. Other movements, such as the Sanusi order in North Africa and the Sudanese Mahdist movement, also combined religious reform with resistance to foreign domination, but they were not simply offshoots of Usman dan Fodio's movement. The Sudanese Mahdist claim also involved a specific claim to the Mahdi, which mainstream Sunni scholars assess with caution and do not treat as automatically established.

• Indian Subcontinent (South Asia): In British-ruled India, several movements focused on purifying practice and creed among Muslims:

  • Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703-1762) was an earlier scholar in Delhi who set the stage by urging a renewal of Islamic thought and translating the Quran into Persian so people could understand it better. His ideas influenced later reformers.
  • Syed Ahmad Barelvi (Syed Ahmad of Rai Bareilly) (1786-1831) led a campaign in the 1820s to remove un-Islamic innovations and fought against Sikh rule in Punjab to establish an Islamic system. Though he was martyred, he left a legacy of emphasizing jihad and purification.
  • Ahl-i Hadith movement: By the mid-19th century, some scholars in India (like Nawab Siddiq Hasan Khan) promoted following Hadith directly and not blindly adhering to any one legal school (madhab). They were similar to the Arabian Salafis in stressing textual proofs over folk customs or centuries of precedent. The Ahl-i Hadith rejected cultural practices like excessive grave veneration. This movement paralleled the Wahhabi ideals and created a distinct group in India that identified simply as Sunni Muslims following the way of the Salaf. They established schools and publications to propagate Quran-Sunnah purity.
  • Deoband Movement: Interestingly, at the same time, scholars in India's Deoband (a town in North India) in 1866 founded the Darul Uloom Deoband, an Islamic seminary, to revive traditional Islamic scholarship. The Deobandis were dedicated to teaching Quran, Hadith, law, and purification of the soul. They were staunchly opposed to British cultural influences. While following the Hanafi school in jurisprudence, they emphasized adherence to Sunnah and condemned new customs that had no Sharia basis. They also eschewed worldly luxury, promoting simple living and piety. The Deobandi scholars - like Mawlana Qasim Nanotvi and later Mawlana Ashraf Ali Thanvi - helped rejuvenate Islamic learning in India. They produced thousands of graduates who spread religious knowledge throughout South Asia, countering Christian missionaries and Westernized trends. This was a grassroots revival - focusing on madrasa education, personal reform, and maintaining Islamic identity under colonial rule.

In all these examples, the common thread was "revival by going back to basics." These movements viewed the Quran and authentic Sunnah as a compass to steer Muslim society back on course. They often criticized Muslims' own errors more than external enemies, believing that once Muslims reformed themselves and eliminated internal weaknesses (whether theological deviations or moral laxity), they would naturally overcome external domination by Allah's help. Unity on fundamentals was a key message. Many of these groups ended up being quite conservative in outlook, resisting not only un-Islamic religious innovations but sometimes also new cultural influences (like Western dress or secular education) out of caution. Their positive contribution was to restore a pride in orthodox Islam, revive the study of scriptures, and renew personal piety in Muslim communities.

2. Modernist and Intellectual Reforms - Adapting to Modernity with Islam

Another trend was led by more modernist thinkers and scholars who were deeply concerned with the question: "How do we reconcile Islam with the modern world's progress in science, technology, and political thought?" They believed the decline of Muslims was partly due to a failure to keep up with modern knowledge and governance. However (crucially) they did not want to abandon Islam to imitate the West; rather, they wanted to reinterpret Islamic teachings to be dynamic and compatible with modern civilization. These reformers tried to prove that Islam is rational, flexible, and meant for all times.

• Egypt and the Arab World: The forefront of Islamic modernism was in Egypt. A trio of influential figures stands out:

  • Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838-1897): A charismatic pan-Islamic activist and intellectual, Afghani traveled throughout the Muslim world preaching unity and resistance to colonialism. He urged Muslims to acquire modern sciences and education to match Europe, while also rejecting the fatalism that made some passive. He famously argued that Islam properly understood encourages reason and progress. Al-Afghani edited journals and gave speeches attacking both colonial oppression and the blind conservatism of some local clerics. He is often called a "father of Islamic modernism" for igniting the idea that Islam and modernity are not incompatible.
  • Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905): A student of al-Afghani, Abduh became the Grand Mufti of Egypt and used his position to promote educational, legal, and social reforms. He called for ijtihad by qualified scholars in matters where the revealed texts and consensus did not fix a single ruling, and he wanted religious education to include useful contemporary subjects. He also attempted to reform Al-Azhar's curriculum. In theology and tafsir, he emphasized the Quran's moral and rational guidance, but some of his rationalizing interpretations of miracles and the unseen were controversial among Sunni scholars and should not be treated as the mainstream position. He also issued bold legal opinions, including a disputed view about returns from Egypt's Post Office Savings Fund. This should not be presented as a general permission for modern bank interest: the overwhelming majority of classical and contemporary Sunni jurists continue to regard stipulated, guaranteed interest on loans and deposits as riba and therefore prohibited. Abduh's writings, such as Risalat al-Tawhid and the lessons that contributed to Tafsir al-Manar, argued that Islam is ethical, rational, and capable of guiding modern society. The saying often attributed to him - that he saw Islamic virtues in the West and Muslims lacking them in the East - captures a common reformist sentiment, but the exact quotation is not reliably established as his wording.
  • Rashid Rida (1865-1935): A disciple of Abduh, Rida continued the mission by publishing the journal Al-Manar, which spread reformist ideas across the Arabic-speaking world. He helped produce the influential Tafsir al-Manar, based initially on Abduh's lessons and then continued by Rida. Over time, Rida moved in a more text-centered and explicitly Salafi direction than Abduh, especially in creed, law, and his response to the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924. He advocated a renewed Islamic political order and gave importance to shura (consultation), while still differing from modern secular constitutionalism. The term Salafiyya had earlier and varied uses, but in Rida's circles it often meant returning to the Quran, Sunnah, and the way of the early Muslims while engaging modern problems. Later Salafi trends developed in different directions, so it is too simple to say that the original term meant one fixed pro-science modernist ideology.

  These Egyptian/Levantine reformers influenced the entire Muslim world through their writings and students. They argued that Muslims should have constitutional government, modern education, and scientific spirit, all within the bounds of Islam. They pointed out how Islamic civilization in its golden age was dynamic and open to knowledge, and that colonization succeeded only because Muslims had grown weak and ignorant, straying from true Islam's emphasis on education and justice. Their call was to renew Islamic thought, for example, Abduh encouraged reinterpretation of certain legal rulings that had been suitable for past but not explicitly fixed if circumstances changed. They faced opposition from some traditional ulema who feared any change, but their ideas took root especially among the emerging urban educated classes.

• South Asia: In British India, a similar modernist impulse arose:

  • Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898): A contemporary of Abduh in India, Sir Syed was a major Muslim educator, reformist writer, and colonial-era administrator, though not a traditionally trained alim in the classical madrasa sense. After seeing British technological and administrative power, he concluded that Muslims needed modern education alongside religious identity. He founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875; it later became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. Sir Syed also wrote modernist interpretations of Islam, including naturalistic readings of some miracles and matters of the unseen, and he encouraged reinterpretation of law in light of reason and social change. Many Sunni scholars strongly criticized aspects of his theology as departures from orthodox belief, even while recognizing the importance of Muslim educational uplift. He also argued for loyalty to British rule as a way for Muslims to recover after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, a position that was deeply controversial. His Aligarh movement created a class of Western-educated Muslims who continued to identify with Islam, and his educational legacy was enormous, even though several of his theological views remained unacceptable to mainstream Sunni scholarship.

  • Challenging Colonial Narratives: Other intellectuals in late 19th/early 20th century India also wrote about reconciling Islam with modern ideas. Chiragh Ali, Syed Ameer Ali, and later Muhammad Iqbal can be mentioned. Iqbal, the famous poet-philosopher, in the 1930s delivered lectures ("The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam") arguing for ijtihad and that Islam's legal framework could accommodate democratic principles. He envisaged a Muslim state in northwest India to rejuvenate Islam (this inspired Pakistan's creation). Iqbal believed Islam always contained the seeds of progress - for example, the concept of ijtihad is like the legislative power of modern states, meaning Muslims could enact fresh laws via juristic consensus within Quranic guidance. These modernist voices collectively insisted that Islam is not incompatible with modern progress; rather, a reformed, enlightened Islam should lead Muslims to both spiritual and worldly success.

In summary, the modernist reformers sought a middle path: they rejected the notion that Muslims must copy the West blindly (they were proud of Islam's unique values), yet they also rejected the idea of isolating from modern developments. They aimed to reform Islamic thought by removing what they saw as excess rigidity or literalism, encouraging rational inquiry and ethical principles. They stressed education, science, and political reform (like constitutionalism) as tools for Muslim rejuvenation. These ideas were influential in the early 20th century and laid groundwork for many later developments, including the emergence of modern Islamic universities, reformed school curricula, and even contemporary Islamic banking (efforts to adapt finance to religious norms). However, some critics feared that in trying to "modernize" Islam, a few modernists went too far in reinterpreting core tenets. The debate they started (how far can tajdid go?) remains lively today in the Muslim world.

3. Social and Political Activism - Revival through Organization and Activism

As the 20th century progressed, especially after World War I, a new wave of Islamic reform took a social and political character. Rather than focus only on theology or education, these movements aimed to reorganize Muslim society and governance according to Islam. They believed that only by establishing Islamic principles in public life could the full revival happen. Some key examples:

• The Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan al-Muslimin): Founded in Egypt in 1928 by Hasan al-Banna (1906-1949), the Muslim Brotherhood became one of the most significant Islamic revivalist organizations of the 20th century. Al-Banna was a schoolteacher distressed by British colonial presence, social inequality, and the erosion of Islamic values in Egypt. He taught that Islam is comprehensive - worship, morals, family, society, and governance - and later Brotherhood circles became especially associated with the slogan Islam is the solution. The movement built networks of schools, charities, youth groups, preaching circles, and social services, and it participated in anti-colonial activism. Al-Banna emphasized personal piety, prayer, charity, and adherence to Sunnah, while also calling for public life to be guided by Islamic principles. Its method was often presented as gradual education and reform, but the historical record is more complicated: the Brotherhood also developed a secret apparatus, some members were implicated in political violence in the 1940s, and the state responded with severe repression. Al-Banna condemned some acts of assassination, and he himself was assassinated in 1949. The Brotherhood attracted many educated youth and workers with its call for Islamic social justice and resistance to Western domination, and volunteers connected to it fought in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. By mid-century, it had spread beyond Egypt. Its history shows how a reform movement could become a broad socio-political force, but it should be assessed with both its social contributions and its serious controversies in view.

• Jamaat-e-Islami: In British India, Syed Abul A'la Maududi (1903-1979) founded Jamaat-e-Islami in 1941. Maududi was an influential Muslim writer, journalist, and religious thinker, though not a traditionally trained alim in the classical madrasa sense. He argued that Muslims needed an organized effort to establish Islam in all spheres of life, including governance, law, economics, and public morality. Jamaat-e-Islami began as a disciplined movement to educate Muslims about Islamic order, promote Sharia-guided public life, and oppose both Westernization and secular nationalism. Maududi wrote influential works such as Islamic Law and Constitution and Towards Understanding Islam, explaining that Islam is not limited to private rituals but includes social and political principles. He popularized modern terms such as Islamic ideology and emphasized hakimiyyah - Allah's ultimate sovereignty. His political theory was not simply modern democracy; he criticized unrestricted popular sovereignty and proposed a consultative Islamic polity sometimes described as a form of theo-democracy or Islamic democracy under divine law. After Pakistan's creation, Jamaat-e-Islami worked as a political party pushing for Islamic constitutional provisions and laws. Its ideas influenced Pakistan and many later Islamist movements, while also attracting criticism from traditional scholars and modern critics over its political readings of Islam and movement-based approach.

Both the Brotherhood and Jamaat were Sunni revivalist movements that differed from earlier reformers by their high level of organization and political engagement. They didn't just write books or preach, they built membership, had leadership structures, and aimed to influence or take power through popular support. This model is often termed "Islamism", not in a negative sense, but meaning Islamic activism to reorder society. They drew on earlier reform ideas: emphasis on Quran and Sunnah, moral cleansing, education, but added a focus on socio-political change (like enacting Sharia-based laws, resisting imperialism, etc.).

• Grassroots Piety Movements: Not all organized movements were political; some aimed purely at spiritual and moral reform among the masses:

  • Tablighi Jamaat: Started in 1926 in India by Maulana Ilyas Kandhalawi, Tablighi Jamaat focused on reconnecting ordinary Muslims with fundamental practices (prayer, remembering Allah, avoiding sins). It was a response to widespread neglect of basics, especially among ordinary folk. The method was simple: small groups of volunteer preachers go door to door, village to village, reminding people to pray, attend the mosque, and follow Islamic manners. Tablighi Jamaat was non-political and non-confrontational - they deliberately avoided contentious debates. Instead, they emphasize personal reform and emulation of the Prophet (ﷺ) and his companions in daily life. Over decades, this movement spread globally, and millions have attended Tablighi missions (known as khuruj). The movement showed that reform can also mean reviving faith in hearts on a large scale, without directly engaging in politics. Their success is seen in how many people credit them for becoming practicing Muslims again. Essentially, they worked from the ground up - one individual at a time - to create a spiritually reformed community.

  • Sufi Orders with Reformist Agendas: While we avoid going deep into Sufi content, it's noteworthy that some Islamic mystic (Sufi) orders themselves underwent reform in this era. Certain Sufi leaders in 19th/20th century, such as the Sanusi order in North Africa or Naqshbandi Mujaddidi order, combined spiritual teachings with calls for strict Sharia adherence and anti-colonial activism. They tried to purge Sufism of excesses and return to a more sober, scripture-based spirituality. This way, even mystically inclined Muslims participated in the broader reform atmosphere, emphasizing that true spirituality must be anchored in the Quran and Sunnah. A prominent example is Imam Shamil in the Caucasus (Dagestan) who led a Naqshbandi Sufi-inspired resistance against Russian conquest in the 1800s; he preached religious purity and jihad against oppressors, blending inner reform with outward struggle.

• National Independence and Reform: As the colonial era ended after WWII, many new Muslim-majority nations emerged. Some leaders of independence movements were also Islamic reformists. For instance, Allama Iqbal in India/Pakistan (though he died before independence) and Abdelkrim al-Khattabi in Morocco or Omar Mukhtar in Libya invoked Islam to mobilize their people. The idea was that throwing off colonial rule was part of Islamic revival - regaining the freedom to implement Islamic values. However, post-independence, many states adopted secular or mixed systems. This in turn gave further energy in late 20th century to movements calling for a deeper Islamization of society and law, seeing political freedom as incomplete without spiritual and moral reform in the nation.

By the late 20th century (1970s and beyond), an "Islamic resurgence" was noted by many observers. After a period of secular experiments, populations in countries like Egypt, Pakistan, Malaysia, etc., showed renewed interest in Islamic identity, higher mosque attendance, Islamic dress, popularity of Islamic literature. This was partly due to the groundwork of the reform movements we discussed. The 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran (though Shia-led and outside our scope) and the Afghan jihad against the Soviet invasion (1979-89) further galvanized global Muslim consciousness around the idea of returning to religion for solutions. While those are separate stories, they intersect with Sunni reform trends in that the global Muslim ummah was experiencing a revival of religious sentiment and a call for authentic Islamic governance and lifestyle, after a lull of Westernized secular approaches.

It's important to mention: the results of these movements were mixed, and a Sunni assessment should not romanticize them. Many participants served Islam through teaching, charity, anti-colonial resistance, and personal reform; others made serious mistakes in theology, political theory, takfir, partisanship, or methods of activism. Some later splinter groups drew selectively on revivalist writings to justify militancy, while mainstream scholars rejected terrorism, vigilantism, indiscriminate violence, and declaring Muslims unbelievers without right. The correct standard is not loyalty to a movement, but the Quran, authentic Sunnah, the understanding of the early Muslims, the recognized principles of fiqh, and Islamic ethics of justice and mercy.

Views of Islamic Scholars on Reform and Differences in Approach

Throughout this reformist wave, classical and contemporary scholars provided guidance on what constitutes true reform. A common scholarly phrase is al-Islam salih li-kulli zaman wa-makan - Islam is suitable for every time and place. This is not a hadith or Quranic verse, but a sound meaning when understood properly: the Quran and Sunnah contain fixed beliefs and obligations, as well as broad principles and juristic tools through which qualified scholars address changing circumstances without altering the religion's core.

Classical Commentary: Early scholars had anticipated the need for periodic renewal. Many referenced the hadith about mujaddids. For instance, Imam Al-Suyuti (15th century) even wrote an essay listing who he believed were the renewers of each century up to his time. He named figures like Caliph Umar ibn Abdul Aziz (for the 1st century after Prophet), Imam Al-Shafi'i (2nd century), Imam Al-Ghazali (5th century), etc., as mujaddids who renewed aspects of the faith. This shows that "reform" (tajdid) in the sense of revival has always been part of Sunni understanding, it is not a modern invention. Al-Suyuti's list and others make clear that a mujaddid could be a scholar, a just ruler, or even a movement, who restores the vigor of Islam. This gave 19th-20th century reformers a sense of legitimacy, they felt they were fulfilling a Prophetic prediction and a scholarly expectation.

Major Sunni Schools of Law (Madhabs): Interestingly, the movements we discussed were not strictly defined by the four Sunni legal schools (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanbali). Reformers and scholars from all four madhhabs participated in revival. For example, the Deobandi revivalists were Hanafi jurists; the Arabian reform associated with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was rooted largely in Hanbali tradition; many Egyptian reformers were trained in institutions shaped by several Sunni traditions; and West African revivals were often led by Maliki scholars. The goal of fidelity to the Quran and Sunnah is common to all Sunni schools, though they differ in legal method and application. Sunni law has never required that every new issue be answered only by copying a past text without reasoning. Qualified jurists may use recognized tools such as qiyas, consideration of public welfare, custom, blocking harmful means, and legal maxims, according to the methodology of their schools. At the same time, taqlid is legitimate and often necessary for non-specialists and for scholars who have not reached the level of independent ijtihad; what is blameworthy is blind partisanship against clear evidence. The famous claim that the gates of ijtihad were closed was never a formal Sunni consensus. It describes a real tendency toward legal conservatism in some periods, but serious juristic reasoning continued within and across the madhhabs.

In practice, differences arose more from outlook than madhab:

• Traditionalist scholars were wary of too much change. They feared that unqualified people making new interpretations might erode the purity of Islam. They tended to stress continuity with past scholarship (taqlid is not a bad word to them; it means humility and preserving accumulated wisdom).
• Reformist scholars (whether modernists or Salafis) felt that the fast-changing world required re-examining some centuries-old positions. They stressed ijtihad and direct reference to scriptures. They often criticized blind adherence to scholars if it appeared to conflict with clear evidence from Quran or Hadith.

Many reformers on different sides affirmed the broad identity of Sunni Islam, but not every figure's theology or method can be endorsed without qualification. Several revival movements were indeed led by traditionally trained ulema, showing that renewal did not always mean breaking from the scholarly establishment. For instance, many Deobandi scholars possessed ijazah and training in classical texts while pursuing renewal in teaching, piety, and communal practice. Conversely, some modernists argued from Quranic language while adopting interpretations of miracles, angels, jinn, hadith authority, or riba that mainstream Sunni scholars rejected. A fair reading separates beneficial contributions - such as education, anti-colonial concern, or moral reform - from theological or legal errors.

Modern Scholarly Commentary: In the 20th century, widely respected scholars continued to discuss reform. One prominent voice, Shaykh Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1926-2022), a graduate of Al-Azhar, wrote "Islamic Awakening Between Rejection and Extremism" in the 1980s, reflecting on the revival movements. He praised the return of Muslims to religiosity (the awakening), but warned of two pitfalls:

• Tamyi' (watering down): On one side, some might call for "reform" but actually want to dilute Islam to mimic the West completely, losing the religion's essence. Qaradawi argued this is not true reform but capitulation. For example, those who say "update Islam by discarding hijab, interest prohibition, etc." are actually abandoning parts of Islam. He said Islam doesn't need a Reformation like Christianity did (because Islam has no priesthood or fixed medieval dogmas) - rather, it needs a restoration to its original pure form and wise application.
• Tashaddud (extremism): On the other side, some zealots in the revival became so harsh and uncompromising that they drove people away or fostered conflict. He warned against an extremist mindset that might justify violence or blanket takfir (calling other Muslims unbelievers) in the name of "reform."

Scholars like him stressed balance (wasatiyyah), the Quran calls Muslims "a middle nation" (Quran 2:143). So, the best reformers are those who renew the faith with wisdom and compassion, not those who either distort it for fashion or turn it into something hard and unapproachable. This balanced approach is actually the hallmark of Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jama'ah, the mainstream of Sunni Islam, which values the middle path, neither secularist nor fanatic.

Another modern scholar, Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi (1913-1999) from India, wrote a famous series "Saviours of Islamic Spirit" highlighting personalities through history who revived Islam. He included 19th-20th century figures as well, presenting them as part of Allah's plan to renew the ummah's faith. Scholars like Nadwi and others essentially gave Muslims a sense of continuity: what you are experiencing now (efforts to reform) are part of a long tradition going back to the Prophet (ﷺ) himself. This perspective encouraged Muslims to participate positively in revival, seeing it as a sign of Allah's mercy that renewal always comes.

Miracles and Prophecies

Although reform movements are human efforts, Muslims may reasonably see the survival of Islam under colonial pressure and the later revival of religious practice as signs of Allah's mercy and aid. Still, it is better to avoid calling particular political or social outcomes a "miracle" in the technical sense, or treating any modern movement as unquestionably foretold. The authentic hadiths about a group remaining upon the truth, and the well-known report that Islam will reach as far as night and day reach, give Muslims confidence that Allah will preserve His religion; they do not prove that every group claiming reform is correct. Likewise, demographic claims about Islam's growth in the West should be stated cautiously, because growth can result from birth rates, migration, conversion, and reporting methods.

The hadith of tajdid is a true source of hope, but identifying the mujaddid of a century is usually a retrospective scholarly judgment and often disputed. A renewer may be one person, several scholars, a just ruler, or a wider scholarly effort, and no one should be granted immunity from criticism because supporters call him a mujaddid. Muslims trust that Allah preserves the Quran - "We have sent down the Reminder, and We will surely guard it" (Quran 15:9) - and that He preserves the religion through scholars and sincere believers, while still requiring every movement and claim to be weighed by sound evidence and Sunni principles.

Conclusion: Lessons for Today's Muslims

The reform movements of the 19th and 20th centuries show the resilience of Islam and provide many lessons for us today. Faced with loss and decline, Muslims did not abandon their faith; instead, they turned back to it for solutions. Each movement, in its own way, tried to connect the eternal teachings of Islam with the present needs of the people. This dynamic continues even now in the 21st century.

How does this history affect us and how should we move forward?

• Hold on to the Quran and Sunnah: The reformers proved that the Quran and the example of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) have the guidance we need for all times. Whenever Muslims strayed or felt confused, returning to these sources brought clarity and unity. We too, in a rapidly changing world of technology and social change, must continually refer back to our foundations. If something new challenges us - be it an ethical dilemma, a social trend - we ask: What do the Quran and authentic Sunnah say about this? This principle safeguards the truth of Islam in our lives.

• Embrace Tajdid (Positive Change) in our Lives: Tajdid is not just an academic concept; it's something each of us can practice. We should regularly renew our faith and practices. The Prophet (ﷺ) taught that faith can wear out in the heart like clothes wear out, so we should ask Allah to renew faith in our hearts. This personal renewal can be through seeking knowledge, increasing our worship and sincerity, removing bad habits, and adopting forgotten Sunnahs. Just as communities require reform, our individual heart needs reform too. As the Quran indicated, Allah changes our condition when we change ourselves (13:11). If we all strive for self-improvement according to Islam, the overall ummah will rise, insha'Allah.

• Balance and Wisdom: We learn from the reformers the importance of a balanced approach. We shouldn't misunderstand reform as either throwing away all tradition or as resisting any new idea blindly. Islam's view is the best because it is balanced - it calls us to take the middle path. We appreciate useful new knowledge (science, technology, etc.) without losing our religious identity. We remove cultural practices that contradict Islam, but we also respect our scholarly heritage and do not cut ourselves off from it. The middle path helped the successful reformers appeal to people's hearts. It is often said, "Al-dinu yusr" - the religion is ease - meaning Islam is meant to be reasonable and facilitate human welfare, not to impose hardship (within halal limits). In reform, this translates to using gentle persuasion, not force; using wisdom (hikmah) as the Quran commands: "Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good advice" (Quran 16:125).

• Education and Knowledge: A recurring theme of all reforms was reviving knowledge. Ignorance was seen as a root cause of decline. Indeed, the first word revealed in the Quran was "Iqra" (Read!). Whether it was traditional madrasa learning or modern science, the reformers pushed Muslims to educate themselves. Today, we must carry that torch: encourage both religious and worldly education in our communities. An educated Muslim is better able to serve Islam, whether by teaching others, refuting misconceptions, or contributing to economic and scientific development of the ummah. Knowledge lights the path of reform so we don't stumble in the darkness of confusion.

• Unity and Brotherhood: Almost all reformers lamented the divisions among Muslims. They reminded us of the Quranic command to hold onto the rope of Allah together and not divide (3:103). We should learn from past schisms and avoid sectarianism or partisan bias. Unity does not mean uniformity in every minor detail, but it means focusing on our common beliefs (the vast majority of our creed and practices) and working together on that basis. When Muslims united around common goals - for example, throwing off colonial rule or defending their lands - they succeeded. When they were disunited, they were easily defeated or exploited. In today's context, unity means fostering tolerance among the various schools of thought, resolving disputes through dialogue and reference to evidence, and having a shared vision for the Muslim community's future.

• Confidence in Islam's Future: The history we reviewed should actually fill our hearts with hope and confidence. Time and again, Islam has shown an amazing capacity to rebound. By the start of the 20th century, some Western observers thought Islam would fade as modernization advanced. But the opposite happened: faith surged back in many places. This tells us that Islam is deeply rooted in the fitrah (innate nature) of humans - it addresses spiritual needs that no material progress can replace. It also tells us Allah's promise is true: if we help His cause, He will help us (Quran 47:7). As Muslims today, we should not despair at any difficulties. Instead, we can be part of the ongoing renewal. We might be ordinary people, but we can still contribute - by raising our families on Islam, doing charitable work, correcting a wrong when we see it, or simply being a good example of Muslim character in society. These small acts accumulate to a great wave of positive change.

Lastly, we should remember that Allah is ultimately in control, and He has a plan for this Ummah. The Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) said that Allah will continue to raise people to revive the faith. Perhaps the next mujaddid could be among the youth reading and learning about Islam today. The duty of each Muslim is to sincerely ask Allah to reform us and use us for reforming others. We say "O Allah, renew the faith in our hearts and in our community."

The Quran beautifully states:

"By the passage of time! Surely, humanity is in loss - except those who believe, do good deeds, urge one another to truth, and urge one another to perseverance." (Quran 103:1-3).

This means success lies in true belief, righteous action, and collectively encouraging truth and patience. The reform movements were essentially groups of Muslims doing exactly this - urging each other to truth and patience amid trials. We too must carry that mantle. With strong faith, knowledge, and unity, guided by the Quran and the Prophet's Sunnah, we can face any modern challenge and ensure that the light of Islam shines ever bright for generations to come.

Glad tidings to the strangers who keep the flame of faith alive, may Allah make us among them, and may He continue to send guidance and renewal to this Ummah. The story of Islam in the 19th and 20th centuries teaches us that after hardship comes ease, and after periods of weakness, Allah brings back strength to those who remain steadfast. This is the ongoing miracle of Islam's regeneration, a testament to its divine truth and beauty that no force can extinguish.

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